Contributions to Misunderstanding Psychology Essay Example for Free

Contri entirelyions to Misunderstanding Psychology EssayRose (1992) has accused psychology of Engineering the Human Soul (p. 351). This is a genuinely odd statement for a sociologist to make because science, whether hard or social, by definition, requires conclusions to be based on use of the scientific method. Alas, the hypothesis that there is a human soul is one that that the scientific method cannot address because there is no way to provide empirical evidence that either confirms or disconfirms it.Indeed, level the phrenologists Gall and Spurzheim (discussed below), who mapped the brain into areas irresponsible all sorts of human attributes, found an area for spirituality (Myers, 2004), but not for the soul. Rose is, however, in the company of a medical internist with a Ph. D. from Yale in physical chemistry, i. e. , Collins (2007, as cited in Snyder, 2007), who has claimed there is evidence that moral law is implanted in our brains by God (p. 6).Nonetheless, disrespect psychology being unable to engineer an entity for which there is no scientific evidence, one purpose of this paper is to argue that Rose (1992), along with another(prenominal) critics of moral interrogation, has failed to recognize that the continued influence of the studies of soul differences beyond the early part of the last century, mainly the development of tests to measure acquaintance, i. e. , IQ testing, has not been on psychology, but on education.Indeed, later psychological research on intelligence and cognitive development has been largely ignored in education (Perlmutter Burrell, 1999). There is no disagreement that IQ testing had and continues to contract a negative influence on education, but this paper addresses the waning of the influences of IQ testing within psychology itself not long after the development of these tests. What is psychology? Rose (1992) defined psychology as the study of individual differences, based on a paradigmatic technique of . . . the psychological test .. . (pp. 358-359). The goal of psychology, according to Rose, is the isolation, intensification, and inscription of human difference (p. 359). This definition is not the same as the one used in about textbooks on introductory psychology, where the discipline is defined as the science of behavior and mental processes (Myers, 2004). While psychological questions have been of interest from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers, psychology as a science did not develop until the latter part of the 19th century (Myers, 2004).Psychologists eventually conducted research in areas that began in other disciplines and too came to be blamed for the wretched excesses of still other disciplines, notably education. In the early 19th century, phrenologists Gall and Spurzheim mapped out brain areas supposedly controlling attributes from acquisitiveness to sublimity and measured people on these attributes by feeling bumps on their heads (Myers, 2004).Despite the embarr assment phrenology caused scientists, late in the 19th century French and German neurologists, notably Brocca and Wertheimer, provided evidence of left(p)- cerebral hemisphere dominance in tasks involving language (Deutsch Springer, 1997). They used autopsy findings of those who suffered language deficits following strokes to areas in the left cerebral hemisphere (the dominant hemisphere for more than than 90% and 70% of right- and left-handed people respectively).These findings were followed by further research on deficits in spatial abilities following strokes in the right cerebral ( usually non-dominant) hemisphere (Deutsch Springer, 1997). In the next century, researchers studied the performance of those who underwent a surgical procedure where the connecting fibers (the corpus colossus) between the two hemispheres were severed to control the spread of severe seizures (Deutsch Springer, 1999). subsequently research, using equipment such(prenominal) as evoked potentials, wa s conducted using samples from the general population.The research provided evidence not that only one hemisphere was activated during performance of nigh tasks but evidence that one hemisphere was more activated than the other, for example, in language comprehension, the left hemisphere is more activated, but the right hemisphere also is activated in comprehending the emotional, metaphoric, and humorous content of language (Deutsch Springer, 1997). Individual differences also were rare, for example, listening to music results in greater activation in the right than left hemisphere, except there is the reverse pattern for trained musicians (Deutsch Springer, 1999).However, the history of research related to the cerebral hemispheres is an example of psychologists falsely being blamed for the nonsense propagated by those in education that there were left- and right-brained people and teachers somehow were supposed to adjust their teaching for their right-brained students (Connell, 1990). In outlining the history of psychology, introductory textbooks place its beginnings in Wundts judicature of a laboratory in Vienna in 1879 for the purpose of applying the scientific method to the study of human mental processes On a December sidereal day in 1879 .. . Wundt was seeking to measure . . . the fastest and simplest mental processes. Thus began what many consider psychologys first experiment (Myers, 2004, p. 4). However, those in other disciplines, such as Rose (1992), seem to believe not only that psychology began and ended with the early work of those studying individual differences, but also that research in psychology actually is used in education. Individual DifferencesOne important difference between the early work of neurologists on the human cerebral hemispheres described above and early work on individual differences is that the former research was based on beginning with basic or shared mental processes. Put another way, the law of parsimony is that m ain effects are studied prior to interactions (Kirk, 1995). The early work on individual differences in intelligence began prior to research on basic cognitive processing.Galtons definition of intelligence (White, 2006) was based on an assumption drawn from Darwins evolutionary system of the survival of the fittest, both between- and within-species (1859, as cited in Myers, 2004). Between-species, humans clearly are advantaged with superior intellect. However, if human intelligence had been defined as those characteristics that increase the probability of an individuals survival, predominant attributes would be those related to the attainment of economic and political power.From the beginnings of civilization, world history has been a struggle for power, with members of prevailing powerful groups inhumanely prevail members of less powerful groups (Braudel Mayne, 2003), a concept perhaps best expressed by John Travolta in Saturday Night Fever as everybody always has to have somebo dy to dump on (Wexler, 1977). Being powerful certainly does enhance ones chances of survival, but how did anyone reach the conclusion that power was related to what we usually think of as intellect?

Roller-coaster of Emotions Essay Example for Free

Roller-coaster of Emotions EssayThe plain was rich with crops thither were many orchards of fruit trees and beyond the plain the mountains were brownness and bare (3) Ernest Hemingway, A Farewell to Arms. To the innocence of children fruit trees and plains is all they are a state of ware of further in fact, what is beyond is what makes Ernest Hemingway want to explain, that beyond those plains there has been funny house and terrible deaths. After a scanning the entire landscape, the eyes can come across the true globe of the war, which made fruitless trees, beat up grounds, chaos, but also soldiers that have learned the true meaning of what war really is. Frederic total heat, the protagonist in Hemingways literary war novel, comes across the reality what liveness has to offer and overcomes many obstacles that changes him to become the individual he ends up being towards the end of the novel. In his novel, A Farewell to Arms, Ernest Hemingway demonstrates that the destruc tiveness of war turns him from the naive solider, to the being in sleep with, and finally to atomic number 1 the person that charms the world as a bad place that destroys a family.To begin with, Henry has no personal control with his temptations towards women, drinks to a fault and simply has carelessness revolving him. The way that Henry enjoys obliterating war is being with women and drinking alcohol which lets him get away for a while. Henry has come across a person that cares for him and wants him to be on the right path, that person is the priest. Trying to get Henry out of his disastrous life, his accomplice the priest, recommends that Henry visits Abruzzi because it will let Henry become a better person. The priest comes across Henry and wants him to prosper and offers Henry to see Abruzzi and visit my the priests family at Capracotta (8), but sort of the captain wins over Henry by saying, come one We go whorehouse before it shuts (9). Henry leaves that night with a si mple good-night towards the priest and wonders off with the rest of the men.The reality of Henrys decision was that he wants to do what is right, but can never manage to do the prudent thing. Henry could have stayed home with the priest but instead his temptations leads him to the wron path. Later on that night Rinaldi asks Henry how the night went. Just like men talk Henry starts going on about how he had a beautiful time every where he went and Rinaldi is there to cheer him on. Rinaldi is almost the exact mirror image as Henry as they perceive women, Rinaldi confirms to Henry that in this town we have beautiful English girls. I am now in love with Miss Barkley (12). Henrys main refinement is to get pleasures that are easy and luxuriant, he calls those strange excitement which shows that he has little or no ability to feel satisfied.Frederic Henry has not been equal to find his inner self, he only chicanes what men in war like to do best Henry drinks alcohol visits the whorehou ses to substitute not being able to figure himself out. To come to a conclusion that the slew that want to help him, Henry ignores them and shows this when he sat next to the priest and he was frustrated and suddenly hurt that I Frederic had not gone to Abruzzi. He had written to his father that I Frederic was coming and they had made preparations (13). This is significant because it shows that the help his close friend offers means nothing to him, he confesses that while going out it lets him get a grip of his emotions something which he cannot do while sober. The way Henry sees things is that people settle for a small amount of pleasure instead of going the extra mile in order to get what they really want.When Henry starts changing is when he meets Catherine Barkley and his love towards her becomes a role in his transformation in his personality. Catherine at first is retributive someone that attracted Henry to her, her tawny skin and petty body was a reason why she caught hi s eye. He has found himself fallen for someone and is constantly wanting to be with her. He searches for her, but she was not in the garden and I Frederic went to the door of the villa where the ambulances drove up. Inside he saw the head nurse, who said Miss Barkley was on dutytheres a war going on, you know (22). Henry clearly knew that a nurse in war has a stressful duty and has hardly any time to spend time with their love ones. Henry wants to be with her and no longer is going around with new(prenominal) women, he wants to be with Miss Barkley and he wants to go the extra mile to go in search for her, just to sound some time together.He is so eager to be with her that he goes the next eveninging to the hospital to see her but has to wait until she came down. While he sits down waits for her he sees every detail inside the hospital, something he never did before, there were many marble busts on painted wooden pillars along the walls of the room they used for an officethey had complete marble quality of all looking alike (28). He is patiently waiting for Catherine, meanwhile he is staring at his surroundings. He has changed into a different man than what he was before he met Miss Barkley. They see each other and she asks if he loves her, he replies with a yes but seems unsure of it. While they converse one thing leads to another and they begin kissing, Frederic sees that both her eyes are shite and thinks to himself, I did not love Catherine Barkley nor had any idea of loving her.This was a game, like a bridge, in which you said things instead of playing cards. Like a bridge you had to pretend you were playing for money or playing for some stakes. Nobody had told me what the stakes were. It was all right with me (30-31). At this point he just wants someone to play around with instead of learning the true meaning behind what love really is. Then becoming injured in war awakens Henry and love has put him to the test. I went out the door and suddenly I fel t lonely and emptywhen I could not see her there I was feeling lonely and hallow (41). His real emotions towards her start rising out when he sees that she can really take care of him by which he was injured terribly. Henry suddenly begins to be more aware of other people rather than just himself and it leads towards a step forward in his persona.The release of Henrys transformation leads into the last words of the novel, he has come to love his Catherine but sees the world as someone that kills with no question. Everything Henry does now revolves around Catherine. His love for her grows as when he is away at the front lines. His uniform is now star-less because he wants nothing to do with war, the faded part of his uniform showed the stars had been removed. He thusly comes across charming people that not only offer him shelter, but also clothing. Theres a closet. Take anything you want. My dear fellow, you dont want to buy clothes (242) but Henry responds that he would much rathe r pay for the clothes. Henrys actions are now more powerful and also shows us that he has more responsibility in him, something that he really did not know how to do at the starting point of the novel.Being away from Catherine improves his ability to take action and make him into a better person that he can be. But later his dreams of Catherine being near him are coming true and has her near. While they are together in the hotel room Henry explains to Catherine that if people bring so much courage to this world the world has to kill them to break them, so of course it kills them. The world breaks every one and afterward many are strong at the broken places. But those that will not break it kills. It kills the very good and the very naughty and the very brave impartially.If you are none of these you can be sure it will kill you too but there will be no special hurry (249). He tries to convince himself that he will be all right since he has escaped the war, little did he know that he was not able to escape freely, but to find out that Catherine had died with the baby they had made together. Ever since then Henry is not able to become the person he had been wanting to be. He ends up being a lonely man, with no family, that sees the world and everyone in it, against him, and nobody there to guide him any longer. Catherines fast death concluded his idea on having that there is life left that war took from him.In conclusion, Ernest Hemingway shows us how war can basically destroy not only a family but also a person that is left without it. Hemingway has Frederic Henrys character to demonstrate that there is always a need to escape from the destructiveness of war in order to keep sanity in ones self. With Frederic Henry as Hemingways model, shows us that you cannot have a rainbow without a little bit of rain, which means that even though Henry was put into awful situations like death, he was able to find the person he was destined to become.

Using Recrystallisation Improve The Purity Of Aspirin Biology Essay

Using Recrystallisation Improve The Purity Of acetylsalicylic acid Biology EssayIn this experiment I have investigated the seek question How does the carry through of recrystallisation improve the naturalness of acetylsalicylic acid.I employ a well documented method of preparing aspirin. Having obtained the aspirin I per realiseed several recrystallisation litigatees on it. I then determined accurately the bar of aspirin in each of my strain by volumetric analysis. I was then able to determine worth and percentage yield by comparing it to an original digs Aspirin in the market. I also employ warming consign to assess ingenuousness.I learnt virtually Aspirin when we did the chapter medicine and drugs in our class. Aspirin is a very common drug delectation in our daily lives. The common chemical suck up wind isacetylsalicylic acidic. Salicylic acid was identified and isolated from the bark of a pass onow tree but it could non be synthesised in laboratory. In 1893 , Felix Hoffman Jr., a chemist ap spot out a practical way for synthesizing an ester derivative of salicylic acid, acetylsalicylic acid. Acetylsalicylic acid, a weaker acid than salicylic acid, was found to have the medicinal properties of salicylic acid without having the objectionable taste or producing the prevail problems as a side effect. The acetyl group effectively masks the acidity of the drug during its ingestion and after it passes into the small intestine, it is converted back to salicylic acid where it domiciliate enter the bloodstream and do its pain relieving action1. Acetylsalicylic acid is powerful as a pain reliever, fever reducer, and swelling-reducing drug but it also has faults, it causes potbelly irritation to nigh individuals and also may lead to Reye syndrome in young children. I was excited to see if this drug we use has the same purity when disposed(p) in lab and when bought from outside. Aspirin is an important analgesic therefore methods of improving purity are essential. The preparation of Aspirin involves organic synthesis and I learnt about this process when I studied organic chemistry and it an interesting topic to research about. The preparation of drugs that I use in my daily lives excited me peculiarly as I want to do biochemistry in university and also work in a pharmaceutical company for drug designing. Hence, I decided upon fashioning aspirin in the lab and researching about it.BACKGROUNG INFORMATION2.1 Synthesis of AspirinThe above is the answer for the formation of Aspirin. This organic synthesis is an esterification response between a compound containing a OH group (ester) and an acid. Esters are a type of organic acid in which the hydrated oxide groups are replaced. The H from the OH group is replaced by a carboxyl carbon C=O group.Esterification is theacid catalyzed reception of a carboxyl (-COOH) group and an -OH group of an alcohol or phenolto form a carboxylate ester. A catalyst is required for the react ion for example toilsome H2SO4.In the synthesis of Aspirin the -OH group is the phenolic -OHgroup attached to ring of the salicylic acid2.2.2 Purification of Aspirin using the process of recrystallisationI apply the process of recrystallisation to investigate how effective this process is in making Aspirin pure. The process of recrystallisation takes returns of the relative solubilities of contaminants compared to that of Aspirin3. The technique is to use a solvent in which the solid is sparingly soluble at low temperature and quite soluble at higher temperature (at the boiling point of the solvent). In my research Aspirin is insoluble in cold water and hence in the process of recrystallisation I branch dissolved Aspirin crystals into hot water and then let it cool down so that it would crystallize out. The solid is dissolved in the minimum quantity of solvent required to produce a re outcome at the boiling point of the solvent. Upon cooling the solution to room temperature or below, the solid crystallizes out of solution due to its lower solubility at the lower temperature4.Impurities (i.e., any foreign substance) in a solid are classified as soluble or insoluble. The removal of insoluble impurities is accomplished by filtering the hot solution. The insoluble impurities remain on the filter paper. Ideally, soluble impurities remain in solution when the solid world purified crystallizes. (Depending upon concentration and solubility of the impurity in the selected solvent it may sometimes be necessary to recrystallise more than one time. That is some of the soluble impurity cogency also crystallize. If any soluble impurity crystallizes, the resolve point of your product ordain be depressed). When recrystallisation is complete the purified solid is isolated by filtration and the crystals are rinse with a small quantity of cold solvent (to rinse off the solution of soluble impurities coating the freshly filtered solid)5.2.3 Determination of purity using run point apparatusI also utilize thaw point determination to give further evidence towards the purity of aspirin. Melting point is a useful measure for the purity of a solid. Melting point apparatus is commonly used for this purpose. It consists of a heated metal block with holes for a thermometer and melting point tubes. The hairlike tubes are provided open-ended and the perspicuous solid atomic number 50 be transferred into the tube and forced to the bottom with gentle tapping. The compound is heated belatedly especially around its melting point for accuracy.There are pleasing forces (intermolecular interactions) between the molecules in a solid that keep them together in an consistent crystalline structure. If enough heat energy is added to the solid the internal kinetic energy of the molecules causes them to move in the solid. At the temperature where the energy of molecular motion everyplacecomes the attractive forces between molecules the compound begins to melt. W hen a solid is pure the molecules are all identical and thus the interactions between molecules are similar and thus the sample leave alone melt at a distinct temperature. Impure compounds, on the other hand, have a range of intermolecular interactions between molecules and will melt over a range of temperatures.63. APPARATUS7-3.1 EquipmentsThe apparatus listed below does not list quantities for repeat developments.Conical flaskful (100 cm3) (-1)Measuring cylinders (10 cm3) (0.5cm3) (-2)Beaker (100 cm3) (-2)Glass rod (-1)Vacuum filtration flask (-1)Rubber tubing for vacuum flask (-1)Hirsch displace (-1)Water bath containing crushed ice (-1)Source of hot water (-1)Test-tubes (-4)Meltemp apparatus for finding the melting point of AspirinBurette (50cm3) (-1)Clamp stand (-1)Spatula (-2)Watch glass (-1)Melting point capillary tube (-1) perk paper to fit Hirsch funnel (-1)3.2 Chemicals2-hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid) (2g)Ethanoic anhydride (4cm3)Concentrated sulfuric acid (5 dr ops)Ethanoic acid (glacial) (4cm3)(1)Aspirin tabletPhenolphthalein solutionSodium hydroxide solution (0.1 mol dm-3)95% alcohol4. DIAGRAM4.1 Hirsch move4.2 Melting Point Apparatus5. METHOD8-Shake 2g of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid) (CARE Irritant) with 4 cm3 of ethanoic anhydride (CARE Corrosive) in a 100 cm3 cone-shaped flask.Add 5 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid (CARE Corrosive) and continue agitating the flask for about 10 minutes. Crystals of Aspirin will appear and soon the whole will form a crystalline mush.Dilute by stirring in 4cm3 of cold glacial ethanoic acid (CARE Corrosive) and cool by placing in a water bath containing crushed ice.Filter off the crystals using a Hirsch funnel (a small funnel for vacuum filtration), washing once with ice cold water to remove residual acid. belongings the stark naked Aspirin in a 100cm3 beaker. Add hot, but not boiling, water until it dissolves. A fold of very pure Aspirin crystals will form cool the flask by surrounding it with cold water.Filter them again and rinse the crystals with the chilled water.The insoluble impurities remain on the filter paper and the filtrate contains the product. Aspirin can be recovered from this solution by evaporation of the recrystallisation.9 Leave the crystals overnight on a watch glass to dry completely. This process is cognise as recrystallisation and is a way of purifying a solid product (Aspirin).Do the recrystallisation process three times and after every recrystallisation remove some sample of Aspirin and store in a test tube to test later.Now do titration of the samples stored after each recrystallisation. Take some of Aspirin for each sample and leave some in the test tube for testing the melting point.For the process of titration, take the Aspirin from each sample into a 50 cm3 conical flask and dissolve it in 5 cm3 of 95% alcohol and add two drops of phenolphthalein solution to it.Titrate the solution in the conical flask with 0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxi de from a burette (CARE Eye protection must be worn).Record the volume needed to produce the first-year tinge of pale pink colour in the indicator. This measure the end-point of the titration.Take a capillary tube and gently press the open end into the big money of Aspirin crystals on the paper so that afewcrystals of Aspirinenter the capillary tube.Tap the closed end of the capillary onto the bench top, so that the Aspirincrystals work their way to the bottom. The Aspirin crystals should be firmly packed, and fill the capillary tube to a depth ofno more than1-2 mm. Insert the capillary tube containing the sample into the melting point apparatus. Record the temperature where the melting point is first observed and when it becomes a liquid completely. This is your melting point range.10Then do the titration of an original tablet of Aspirin available in the market. Then test the melting point of the original tablet of Aspirin by the method set forth above.Compare the melting point which you get from the samples and the original tablet of Aspirin with the one given in the data booklet.6. OBSERVATIONS-When I mixed salicylic acid with ethanoic anhydride, the solution turned milky. When to the solution I added concentrated sulphuric acid, the solution turns colourless and then after agitating for 10 minutes the solution again turns milky white. The beaker is hot and hence we can say that the reaction between concentrated sulphuric acid and the solution (ethanoic anhydride + salicylic acid) is exothermic.When I was doing my melting point I saw that the solid obtained after the first recrystallisation actually turned black before actually getting close to the melting point of the original Aspirin. As the reduce of recrystallisation increased I could see that the melted Aspirin was still white and was getting closer to the melting point of the original Aspirin (135C) as mentioned in the data book.7. DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING-7.1 The data of titrations of diff erent recrystallisation samples of Aspirin-7.1.1 Original Aspirin tabletBurette solution (cm3)0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solutionIndicatorPhenolphthalein solution running1st interpretation2nd interlingual rendition3rd readingBurette readings (cm3)Final (0.1)44.544.044.044.3Initial (0.1)69.069.069.069.0Volume used (titre) cm3 (0.2)25.025.0I have not used as they are not concordant.I have used these reading for my mean titre.Mean titre (cm3) (0.2)25.0 + 25.0 = 50.050.0 2 = 25.0 (mean titre)Volumetric calculationsVolume of NaOH used = 25.0 cm3.Moles of NaOH n = CV V = 25.0 cm3 = 25.0 1000 = 0.025 dm3 n = 0.1 - 0.025 = 0.0025 molSo, moles of Aspirin will also be equal to 0.0025mol because the reaction ratio between NaOH and Aspirin is 11.Weighed out sample of Aspirin = 0.62 gHow many grams of Aspirin reacted with NaOH?Aspirin = C9H8O4g = n - Mr= 0.0025 - Mr (12.01 - 9) + (1.01 - 8) + (16.00 - 4)= 0.0025 - 180.17= 0.45 g division of Aspirin reacted = (0.45 0.62) - 100= 73%7.1.2 A spirin after 1st recrystallisationBurette solution (cm3)0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solutionIndicatorPhenolphthalein solution runnel1st reading2nd reading3rd readingBurette readings (cm3)Final (0.1)3.43.63.73.8Initial (0.1)0.00.00.00.0Volume used (titre) cm3 (0.2)3.63.73.8I have used these reading for my mean titre.Mean titre (cm3) (0.2)3.6 + 3.7 + 3.8 = 11.111.1 3 = 3.7 (mean titre)Volumetric calculationsVolume of NaOH used = 3.7 cm3.Moles of NaOH n = CV V = 3.7 cm3 = 3.7 1000 = 0.0037 dm3 n = 0.1 - 0.0037 = 0.00037 molSo, moles of Aspirin will also be equal to 0.00037mol because the reaction ratio between NaOH and Aspirin is 11.Weighed out sample of Aspirin = 0.30 gHow many grams of Aspirin reacted with NaOH?Aspirin = C9H8O4g = n - Mr= 0.00037 - Mr (12.01 - 9) + (1.01 - 8) + (16.00 - 4)= 0.00037 - 180.17= 0.066 g parting of Aspirin reacted = (0. 066 0.30) - 100= 22%7.1.3 Aspirin after 2nd recrystallisationBurette solution (cm3)0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solutionIndicatorPh enolphthalein solutionTrial1st reading2nd reading3rd readingBurette readings (cm3)Final (0.1)12.612.112.112.3Initial (0.1)9.29.29.29.2Volume used (titre) cm3 (0.2)2.92.9I have not used as they are not concordant.I have used these reading for my mean titre.Mean titre (cm3) (0.2)2.9 + 2.9 = 5.85.8 2 = 2.9 (mean titre)Volumetric calculationsVolume of NaOH used = 2.9 cm3.Moles of NaOH n = CV V = 2.9 cm3 = 2.9 1000 = 0.0029 dm3 n = 0.1 - 0.0029 = 0.00029 molSo, moles of Aspirin will also be equal to 0.00029mol because the reaction ratio between NaOH and Aspirin is 11.Weighed out sample of Aspirin = 0.15 gHow many grams of Aspirin reacted with NaOH?Aspirin = C9H8O4g = n - Mr= 0.00029 - Mr (12.01 - 9) + (1.01 - 8) + (16.00 - 4)= 0.00029 - 180.17= 0.052 g percentage of Aspirin reacted = (0. 052 0.15) - 100= 35%7.1.4 Aspirin after 3rd recrystallisationBurette solution (cm3)0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solutionIndicatorPhenolphthalein solutionTrial1st reading2nd reading3rd readingBurette readings (cm3)Final (0.1)17.217.617.917.9Initial (0.1)13.113.113.113.1Volume used (titre) cm3 (0.2)I have not used as they are not concordant.4.84.8I have used these reading for my mean titre.Mean titre (cm3) (0.2)4.8 + 4.8 = 9.69.6 2 = 4.8 (mean titre)Volumetric calculationsVolume of NaOH used = 4.8 cm3.Moles of NaOH n = CV V = 4.8 cm3 = 4.8 1000 = 0.0048 dm3 n = 0.1 - 0.0048 = 0.00048 molSo, moles of Aspirin will also be equal to 0.00048mol because the reaction ratio between NaOH and Aspirin is 11.Weighed out sample of Aspirin = 0.15 gHow many grams of Aspirin reacted with NaOH?Aspirin = C9H8O4g = n - Mr= 0.00048 - Mr (12.01 - 9) + (1.01 - 8) + (16.00 - 4)= 0.00048 - 180.17= 0.086 gPercentage of Aspirin reacted = (0. 086 0.15) - 100= 57%7.1.5 Aspirin after 4th recrystallisationBurette solution (cm3)0.1 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solutionIndicatorPhenolphthalein solutionTrial1st reading2nd reading3rd readingBurette readings (cm3)Final (0.1)21.320.921.021.1Initial (0.1)16.916.916. 916.9Volume used (titre) cm3 (0.2)4.04.14.2I have used these reading for my mean titre.Mean titre (cm3) (0.2)4.0 + 4.1 + 4.2 = 12.312.3 3 = 4.1 (mean titre)Volumetric calculationsVolume of NaOH used = 4.1 cm3.Moles of NaOH n = CV V = 4.1 cm3 = 4.1 1000 = 0.0041 dm3 n = 0.1 - 0.0041 = 0.00041 mol So, moles of Aspirin will also be equal to 0.00041mol because the reaction ratio between NaOH and Aspirin is 11.Weighed out sample of Aspirin = 0.10 gHow many grams of Aspirin reacted with NaOH?Aspirin = C9H8O4 g = n - Mr= 0.00041 - Mr (12.01 - 9) + (1.01 - 8) + (16.00 - 4)= 0.00041 - 180.17= 0.074 g Percentage of Aspirin reacted = (0. 074 0.10) - 100 = 74%7.2 The data of melting points of different recrystallisation samples of Aspirin-7.2.1 Melting point after first recrystallisationNumber of recrystallisationTemperature (C) ( 0.1C)Original melting point of Aspirin (C)Trial1st reading2nd reading3rd readingAverage1155.0152.5151.9151.7152.0135.02154.1150.0148.5148.2148.9135.03115.2120.912 2.8122.9122.2135.04124.7125.4126.1126.9126.1135.0Original tablet128.0128.8129.2129.9129.3135.07.2.2 Graph showing the difference between melting points of Aspirin which was prepared and recrystallised in lab and melting of Aspirin from the data bookY-axis = temperature (in C)X-axis = number of recrystallisations of aspirin samples prepared in lab and aspirin available in market8. INTERPRETATION OF THE DATAI will now explain the results of melting point and titration. From the results of titrations we can see a trend flowing and how after each recrystallisation the sample gets purer. As the quantity of Aspirin decreased after each recrystallisation, the smokestack of Aspirin in that quantity was more compared to the previous recrystallisation. When compared to the original tablet which we get in the market, I could speculate that the producer has done almost quaternion recrystallisations to get that purity of Aspirin. More pure Aspirin can be obtained if more recrystallisations are done.We could say that the difference in melting point great power be higher because it might contain impurities like unreacted salicylic acid or other by-products of the reaction or decomposition products. We can see that the difference in the melting point is getting less as the number of recrystallisation increase and closer to the melting point of Aspirin published in the data booklet. move on evidence to my theory that the number of recrystallisations increases the purity is my melting point data. From my graph it can be seen clearly that as the number of recrystallisations increase the closer to the melting point of pure aspirin we get in the market.My data shows that the percentage purity of aspirin increased with each recrystallisation process. For example, after the first recrystallisation the percentage purity was only 22%, however when fourth recrystallisation was done the percentage purity was 74% showing a significant increase. This can be seen in the side by side(p ) graph-9. CONCLUSIONIn answer to my research question, How does the process of recrystallisation improve the purity of Aspirin? I have found significantly that the percentage purity increases with each recrystallisation and this is evident in my graph under the heading Interpretation of the data.Recrystallisation is an important technique in organic Chemistry. The general method is to find a solvent that dissolves the product more readily at high temperature than at low temperature, make a hot solution, and allow to crystallise on cooling. The crude product might contain impurities which are insoluble in the solvent impurities which are slightly soluble in the solvent and impurities which dissolve readily in the solvent. The solvent itself has also to be removed or it behaves as an impurity in its own right. It must not leave behind any residue. unrivalled simple way to tell whether an organic compound is pure is to measure its melting (or boiling) point. A pure compound melts sha rply if impurities are present it melts belatedly (over a range of temperature).11The process of recrystallisation in my experiment increased the purity of Aspirin but with a decrease in the quantity produced. The solid will readily dissolve in a larger quantity of solvent the larger the volume of solvent the greater the hurt of product12. This is the reason why after every recrystallisation I lose Aspirin. The process of recrystallisation removes the impurities present and this can be concluded from the fact that the difference between the melting point of the sample and the melting point of Aspirin from data booklet decreases with each recrystallisation.I could conclude that a pharmaceutical company should always have a rest between producing a very pure product, which means many recrystallisation processes and producing enough quantity of the product to make it a profitable industry.10. EVALUATION10.1 Random breakThe apparatus I used had uncertainties like the measuring flask has an uncertainty of 0.5cm3, the burette had an uncertainty of 0.1cm3 and the melting point apparatus also had an uncertainty of 0.1C. This results in errors in my results. The equipment error could be reduced by using equipments with less error. For example, I could use a burette with an error of 0.05 cm3 instead of a burette with error of 0.1 cm3.10.2 Systematic errorIn the process of titration there could a parallax error caused if the reading from the burette is not read at eye-level. So, when taking the reading from the burette, the level of the eye should be same as the level of the meniscus. When we are titrating different samples of recrystallisations the colour of the indicator changes from pale pink to dark and it is difficult to have it off the end-point of the titration process.10.3 Modifications in the method of preparation of Aspirin and its recrystallisationI modified the method to improve it in the following ways After each recrystallisation there was loss of As pirin and the decrease in the mass of Aspirin limited the number of recrystallisations needed to get the most pure form of Aspirin. So, if I doubled the mass of reactants I can get doubled the mass of Aspirin produced and an increase in the number of recrystallisations. When I mixed salicylic acid and ethanoic anhydride solution in concentrated sulphuric acid it is hard to get the formation of a crystalline mush of Aspirin by agitating the flask. Hence, instead I used a magnetic stirrer which gives a uniform stirring and all the chemicals are mixed properly. I found this to be more effective at producing the mush. During the process of recrystallisation a lot of Aspirin is lost. When I used the filter paper, I cut it the same size as the Hirsh funnel. Instead I could have used a bigger filter paper in the funnel so that the impurities do not leak out of the edges of the filter paper and I could get a purer sample of Aspirin. When the Aspirin is left overnight to dry in an evaporatin g dish, there could be many contaminants which would get mixed in the Aspirin and if this is not taken into consideration in pharmaceutical industries then this could lead to serious health problems. Hence, the Aspiring should be covered when left overnight to dry. I could use different methods of purification of Aspirin like thin layer chromatography which is a sensitive and quick way of detecting impurities in an organic product (Aspirin). I could also use spectroscopy which provides a very good method for analyzing an organic compound. By comparing the infra-red spectrum for Aspirin with the spectrum of compound in a database I can check on its purity.11. UNANSWERED QUESTIONSUnfortunately, not all my questions could be answered in this experiment. It would have been interesting in further researching and comparing more brands of Aspirin available in the market, if the producers just recrystallised the sample of Aspirin twice so that they do not lose a lot of their product in the process of recrystallisation or the producers actually tried to produce a pure sample of Aspirin ignoring the decrease in yield after each recrystallisation and considering the fact that this can affect the health of humans.When an organic compound has been made it needs to be purified, particularly if it is apharmaceutical chemical. This is because most organic reactions produce by-products but, even if the reaction is a clean one, the purity standards for many products are so stringent that small amounts of other compounds have to be removed. In particular the catalyst used in this reaction is concentrated sulphuric acid and must all be removed.

The Learner Centered Approach

The Learner Centered ApproachSince ancient times, a drive towards an likingl learnedness surgery has been the field of operations of study for psychologists, philosophers and educators. This investigative research has put forward various modern methodologies utilise in classroom. Through this quest, the pedagogical practices create moved from a teacher centered approach to the much(prenominal) engaging savant centered approach, whereby bookmans be regarded as s snapholders in their attainment process. They argon expected to be active participants and responsible for(p) decision puffrs in the teaching - reading dynamics. The learner centered approach promotes the radical that students should have greater input into what they learn and how they learn it. This is expected to make larn much valu open and relevant to the learners. More importantly, it is expected to make learners autonomous. However, there is no real learners autonomy beca intent every decision regarding t he design of the curriculum to the pickax of activities chosen is hand-picked by the teacher (Lynch, 2010).Learners AutonomyThe concatenation towards a learner-centered approach has resulted in the concept of learners autonomy. Learners ar considered autonomous when they are self- groomed and take accountability of their throw schooling. The main prop angiotensin converting enzyment of learners autonomy, Holec (as cited in Thanasoulas, 2000) intends it as the ability to take charge of ones scholarship (n.p). For the learner to be proactive and self initiator of his reading, he needs to be imbibed by certain characteristics.Autonomous learners are insightful of their individual schooling preferences in terms of styles and strategies.They are self trip upd participants in the learning process.They are risk takers and resort to the use of intention actors line in the learning process.They incorporate intelligent guess dress in learning.They emphasize truth as well as appro priacy and therefore give simultaneous attention to form and content.They analyze and negotiate rules to reject inapplicable hypotheses and proceed with the patsy manner of speaking by placing it into a separate reference system.They are extroverts and have a forward livelinessing and tolerant approach to target language learning. (Thanasoulas, 2000) suppositious UnderpinningsLearners autonomy and learner-centered approach take their foundational principles from the educational philosophy of constructivism. Constructivism advocates that learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own (Slavin, 2010). agree to Candy (as cited in Thanasoulas, 2000) constructivism leads directly to the proposition that intimacy cannot be taught only when only learned (n.p). The chief premise of constructivism is that learners learn by doing done personalizing and internalizing the musical theme matter. In this commission, learning is seen as congenital and learners are seen as the chief architects of their learning (Lynch, 2010).Constructivism was shaped by the courses of Piaget, Vygotsky and Dewey among others. Both Piaget and Vygotsky argue that cognitive pitch takes place only when previous conceptions go through a process of disequilibration in light of new information. Piaget believes in giving problems to learners that encourage them to manipulate cover objects. In such a problem establish learning, learners build upon their prior assumptions and arrive at solutions to the problems (Henson, 2003).Vygotskys fond constructivism introduced the concept of cooperative learning whereby he concludes that acquaintance can not be constructed in isolation and therefore, needs learners to cooperate among themselves to work towards knowledge construction (Henson, 2003).Taking the idea further, Deweys view of learner-centered education embraced the idea that education should be both(prenominal) problem-establish and fun. Each experience should leave the learner motivated and the solving of each problem must lead to new, related questions more or less the topic (Henson, 2003). Dewey advocated letting learners experience their learning first hand to enable them to respect their learning as subjective and relevant to them (Lynch, 2010).Dewey in any case stressed upon the idea of confluent or col lateral learning, which emphasizes the involvement of learners emotions or affective aspect in how they learn. This marks the shift of focus from the cognitive aspect only which deals with how the assessment actually functions, how it processes information or is affected by each individuals perceptions (Reid, 1987) to the affective factor that takes into consideration the emotional filter in spite of appearance a learner as well. The idea comes from the acknowledgement that every learner is distinct in mental and emotional makeup, interests and goals, learning pace, learning style, talent, feeling of efficacy and frames of reference. To make the learning process independent, efficient and effective for the learner, these factors must be considered worthy of attention when designing learning activities (Henson, 2003). Similarly, the learner on his part needs to be aware of his LS based on his mental and emotional system to be able to become an autonomous learner.This marks a departure from the uniformity of practice in institutions where learners are taken as a whole without regard for their diversity. Researchers now agree that it is futile to search for the single best way to achieve a bounteous educational outcome, in large part because learners do not fit a single mould (Guild, 2011). breeding Styles Their ClassificationsIn Accounting for Learning Styles (2009) Dunn and Griggs define LS as, The way students begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and difficult academic information. (p. 1). Dunn and Dunn define learning styles as A term that describe s the variations among learners in using one or more senses to understand, organize, and take experience (Tabanlioglu, 2003). Various learning styles have been proposed by various researchers.Myers -Briggs type indicant. One such classification is by Myers -Briggs (1943) who positive their Personality Type Indicator for studying how people function according to their attitude towards life. It later came to be apply in education, since personality type is an indicator of how one learns (Cohen, 2006).In their polar opposite sets of four personality types, there is dichotomous pairing of introverts and extroverts. Introverts are solitude driven and introspective, while extroverts are social and externally inclined. Introverts deal with abstract concepts while extroverts are action oriented (Cohen, 2008).Sensing personality type prefer literal and chronological presentation of information. They avow on the use of five senses in how they learn (Cohen, 2008). Conversely, intuitors pr edominantly use the sixth sense to work through problems (Din, 2006). They are more interested in the possibilities, implications and interconnectedness of ideas and facts (Cohen, 2008).Within the pair of thinking vs feeling, the thinking learners make decisions objectively without letting an interference of emotions (Din, 2006). On the contrary, feeling learners decisions are guided by their subjective and personally held values (Cohen, 2008).Finally, there is the dichotomy amidst judging and perceiving. Judging learners are driven by planning and meeting deadlines (Cohen, 2008). Self-directed as they are, judging learners take a careful compend of things before initiating a task, but take ownership of their decisions Perceptive learners are more spontaneous and adaptive, but do not value deadlines. They identical to modify tasks to make them flexible for themselves (Din, 2006).Dunn Dunns LS work. In Accounting for Learning Styles (2009) Dunn Dunns model is explained, in whi ch learners are characterized according to their strengths. Individual instructional preferences arise out of an awareness of those strengths. Developed in 1967, this model judges learners according to how they react to 21 elements arranged inside five broad categories, videlicet environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and psychological. Learners have different preferences in each category, based upon which their performance can vary.Felder and Silverman LS model. In 1987, Felder created an assessment model, better know as the Felder and Silverman model, to study the learning preferences of learners. Based upon this assessment, they categorized learners into four dichotomous pairs. According to them, learners can be grouped as active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/ orbicular.Active learners activate themselves to reach new information. Such learners prefer discussion and application of knowledge in spite of appearance group work. Reflec tors, on the other hand, prefer to interact individually with the information. reflective processing involves examining and manipulating the information introspectively (Felder Solomon, 2012).Sensors tend to be concrete and methodical, whereas intuitors are abstract and imaginative. Sensing and intuitive learners prefer discovery based learning, in which they like exploring possibilities and relationships. They like solving problems, but sensors like experimentation, while intuitors prefer to deal with underlying concepts. Sensors like surprises, while intuitors prefer innovation and repetition bores them. Both are practical, but intuitors are faster in grasping details (Felder Solomon, 2012).As the name suggests, visual learners learn best through visualizing content. On the contrary, verbal learners learn through words. Hence, information is processed more effectively and efficiently when presented visually for visual learners and verbally for verbal learners (Felder Solomon, 2012).Sequential learners are more methodical and linear in their approach to learning. They connect newly acquired information to previously known information and proceed in logical steps of knowledge construction. On the other hand, global learners tend to absorb content in fragments, without arranging it in their minds. They solve problems but find it hard to explain how they arrived at the conclusion (Felder Solomon, 2012).Gregorcs mind styles. Gregorc (1985) essential a mind styles inventory that categorizes learners in four patterns of learning. Concrete sequential learners learn through logical sequencing and factual arrangement of information (Putintseva, 2006). They rely on structured learning and practicality and look to find clear answers without any abstraction (Din, 2009). Abstract random learners are more harmonious with abstract, conceptual thinking and work well in groups. Their learning comes from personalizing knowledge. They prefer a sensitive and flexible envir onment with broad instructions and are not open to critical feedback. On the other hand, abstract sequential learners are more analytical and like to work alone. Decision making and ultimate application of ideas comes much after analysis in a challenging environment. They find it hard to follow too more rules and regulations within a task (Putintseva, 2006). Their approach is theoretical and analytical (Din, 2009). The concrete random learners are independent and creative (Din, 2009). These learners take risks and use their intuitive abilities in solving problems. They are competitive and believe in a effort and error approach to solve problems without any stiff restrictions and limitations (Putintseva, 2006).Kolbs existential learning cycle LS model. The almost important classification of LS comes from David Kolb (1984), who based his model on the experiential learning theory. The model thrives on the concept of learners practical experiences forming the backbone of learning. Kolb (as cited in Din, 2009) defines experiential learning as, The process of creating and transforming experience into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs and senses. It is the process through which individuals become themselves (p.49).Kolbs work on experiential learning has its roots in the work of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget. Dewey argues that learners uniqueness as a result of their prior experiences should be acknowledged in their learning process. Dewey (as cited in Din, 2009) refers to learning from, through and to the experience (p.68). He proposes the process of concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of abstract concepts and generalization, and testing implications of concepts in new situation (Din, 2009).Kurt Lewin, organizes elements within his model in the sequence of apprehension concrete experience, observation and reflection, abstract concepts and generalization and testing implementations of concepts (Din, 2009).Piaget propounds t hat learners acts of intelligence are biologically time tabled. The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory, which explains how experiences shape intelligence. He elaborates this through four developmental stages in a learner, namely, the sensory motor stage, pre in operation(p) stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. Sensory motor is a self-centered stage from birth to two geezerhood of age. This is followed by the cognitive intuitive stage called the preoperational stage. This lasts from three to seven years of age followed by the concrete operational stage up to twelve years of age. In this stage, logical approach is developed in learners. In the formal operational stage, learners develop higher order skills and think deeply to conserve knowledge (Din, 2009).Kolb (as cited in Din, 2009) defines learning through experiential cycle as, The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience (p.50).He represents four stages in his famous experiential learning circle. This cyclical experiential learning model is learner foc utilise and emphasizes the process of learning instead of the outcome (Din, 2009).Kolb believes concrete experience as the most likely point of initiation within this cycle of learning. Concrete experience advocates the underlying idea of learning through experiencing acquisition in a situational context. Next stage is reflective observation where the learner detaches himself from active engagement and takes an objective stock of the process and its outcome. Abstract conceptualization is a deeper, theoretical analysis of ideas. It is the intellectual processing of knowledge. Active experimentation is the eventual outcome of this cycle where the learner is expected to make use of the refined knowledge acquired and understood through the three step process and to be able to use it in novel situatio ns. This is the stage that tests the understanding of the learner through application (Mobbs, n.d).Learning occurs when the dimensions in Kolbs experiential learning cycle are used in combination. Based upon these combinations, Kolb identifies learners as divergers, assimilators, convergers and accommodators.Divergers use a combination of concrete experience and reflective observation (Din, 2009). They are sensitive and have the ability to look at situations from different perspectives. They are imaginative, emotionally driven and receptive to feedback. Their understanding is shaped by their feelings and observations (Putintseva, 2006).They get their name from the fact that they learn well in situations that require them to generate broad range of ideas (Seca Santiago, 2003)The assimilators prefer a more logical approach in which conceptual understanding is of prime importance. They combine the use of abstract conceptualization reflective observation (Din, 2009). They do not grasp information holistically, but arrange it in logical, mental constructs. (Putintseva, 2006). They judge ideas for their theoretical value and not for their practicality (Seca Santiago, 2003).The combination of abstract conceptualization and active experimentation gives birth to converging style of learning (Din, 2009). The covergers get their name from the fact that their learning is optimized when they have to converge at one answer to a problem. Convergers learn through a problem solving approach and find solutions to problems. They engage with technicalities and are with child(p) decision makers. Polar opposite of the divergers, learners with a converging style experiment with new ideas and to work with practical applications.On the other hand, accommodators rely on scholarship and have an experiential approach to learning. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences. However, their experiential approach is more discovery based and the result of intuition rather than logical thinking. (Putintseva, 2006). love life Mumfords LS model. Although Felder and Silverman model and Gregorcs mind styles came soon after Kolbs model and seem evidently inspired by it, no other model is as similar to Kolbs model as Honey and Mumfords LS classification. Honey and Mumford (1986) have based their LS classification on Kolbs Experiential Learning Model and admit that there are far more similarities between the two than differences. Honey and Mumford (1986) developed their inventory of four learning styles, namely Activist Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist.Activists are experience driven and their enthusiasm pushes them to take immediate risks. Their learning comes from actively engaging in the experience. They tend to act first and consider the consequences of their actions later.Reflectors take a cautious approach and ponder analytically over ideas and experiences (Seca Santiago, 2003). They listen and observe to master the issue and do not participate till the y have done so. Being assimilating learners, their learning is raise in situations that allow them to reflect and then make decisions (Din, 2009).Theorists are objective learners who take stock of an idea, information or experience and try to mould them into their own theoretical models. They are deep thinkers and try to relate concepts and ideas. For them sound organization of knowledge matters the most (Din, 2009). Their rational approach leads them to analyze and synthesize information (Seca Santiago, 2003)Finally, learning is fruitful to pragmatists only if they can feel its practical utility in their life outside the classroom. They are not merely concerned with the practicality of an experience, but are equally interested in its impact. This is what makes them open and receptive to constructive feedback. They fossilize newly learnt information through immediate application (Din, 2009). Their decision making is based on practicality of an idea (Seca Santiago, 2003).Apart fro m Honey Mumfords own admission of generating their learning styles from Kolbs model, other theorists and researchers have also studied and related the two. Seca and Santiago (2003) found real correlation between Honey and Mumfords reflector and Kolbs reflective observation, Honey and Mumfords pragmatist and Kolbs active experimentation and Honey and Mumfords theorist and Kolbs abstract conceptualization. Based upon the fact that Kolbs learning styles issue out of a combination of traits within his experiential cycle, a stage wise break up of Kolbs learning cycle that generate relationship between Kolbs LS and Honey and Mumfords LS is shown.Relationship between Kolbs and Honey Mumfords Learning StylesStage in KolbsExperiential Learning CycleDimensions in KolbsExperiential Learning CycleKolbs LearningStylesHoney Mumfords Learning StylesStage 1Concrete ExperienceAccomodatingActivistStage 2Reflective ObservationDivergingReflectorStage 3Abstract ConceptualizationAssimilatingTheorist Stage 4Active ExperimentationConvergingPragmatistLanguage Learning Strategies Their ClassificationsOn the other hand, learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously in processing new information to grasp, understand and retain concepts. Wenden and Rubin (as cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) define learning strategies as any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information (n.p). Meyer (as cited in Clouston, 1997) defines LLS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information (n.p). Cohen (as cited in Shabani and Sarem, n.d) defines LLS as the conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with explicit goal of improving their knowledge of a target language (p.3). One of the most widely accepted definition comes from Oxford (as cited in Zare, 2012) who looks at LLS as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easi er, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (p. 164). In view of the definitions above, LLS can be understood as individual ways of processing information that aid comprehension, learning or retention of the information.Most of the work on LLS took place in the 80s and 90s. When it comes to classifying LLS, many taxonomies exist. However, a chronological review of the four most widely known classifications is discussed.O Malleys classification of LLS. O Malley (1985) divides language learning strategies into three main subcategories, namely, metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and socioaffective strategies. Metacognitive strategies are related to the planning of the task before initiation, self monitor of the process and post task analysis. cognitive strategies require the learner to be more directly and actively involved in the manipulation of the learning bodily. It includes note-taking, translating, contexual izing and inferencing to acquire knowledge. Socioaffective strategies involve social engagement for the sake of transaction of information to learn (Hismanoglu, 2000).Rubins classification of LLS. Rubins (1987) came up with a distinction between direct and indirect strategies, later refined by Oxford. His classification includes learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies, which are thought to contribute directly or indirectly to the learning process. Learning strategies subdivision out into cognitive learning strategies and metacognitive learning strategies. These strategies look to manipulate the material through direct analysis and/or synthesis. It can include techniques such as clarification, inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization or monitoring. Communication strategies, on the other hand, aid in bridging the gap in communication that may lead to a communication break down. It can be used for clarification, asking questions a nd to remain a part of the conversation while learning (Zare, 2012).Oxfords classification of LLS. The most world-wide classification of LLS to date comes from Oxford (1990), who has refined and structured her predecessors work by making a taxonomy based on six sub-classifications within two broad categories. curb LLS are divided into fund, cognitive and compensation strategies, while indirect LLS include metacognitive, affective and social strategies. Oxford (as cited in Zare, 2012) clarifies the difference between the two as, all direct strategies require mental processing of the language while all indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning (p. 165).Within direct strategies, memory strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string as through acronyms, while other techniques create learning and retrieval through images, as in creating a mental picture, or through sounds, such as rhyming, or a combination of both, as using k eywords to remember and retain the information. There can be use of other stimuli like mechanically, through flashcards or by using location, such as on a rogue or board or through body movements, as through total physical response.The second type of direct strategies are the cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies enable the learner to use such methods as reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, reorganizing information to create knowledge structures, and practicing structures and sounds formally to manipulate the language material in direct ways. They are meant to create structures for input and output.Compensation strategies, the third type of direct strategies, employ tactics such as guessing, using synonyms and fillers or using gestures to help make up for gaps within communicative knowledge. They are more in use for averting language break down and not strictly language learning strategies.Among the indirect strategies, metacognitive strategies indirect ly manipulate learning by the use of identifying ones own learning style preferences and planning accordingly. It includes gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study position and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, managing the learning process.Affective strategies, the second type of indirect strategies, are strategies to exert control over ones level of anxiety, mood, feelings, reception of material and the learning process. They are meant to control learners attitude while they engage with their learning.Finally, the third type of indirect strategies known as social strategies, are related to the needful need for communication with others within a task. They help the learner move forward in an informed way by asking questions for clarification or verification. Moreover, they can ask for help and while doing so, unconsciously assimilate the target cultural norms (Oxford, 2003).Sterns classification of LLS. Stern (1992) grouped LLS into five c lasses management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative-experiential strategies, interpersonal strategies and affective strategies.Management and planning strategies are associated with empowering the learners to control their own learning. The learners can committ themselves to language learning set themselves reasonable goals select an appropriate methodology, subscribe to relevant resources, and monitor progress. Moreover, they need to evaluate and match their level of achievement with the determined goals and expectations.Cognitive strategies refer to procedures and activities which learners use for improvement in their learning and retaining ability. They also enable learners to solve problems, especially those actions which learners use with specific classroom tasks. When using cognitive strategies, the learners can guess, clarify, verify, practice, memorize or monitor their learning.To avoid interruption within the communicative interaction, learners u se techniques such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrasing, asking for repetition and explanation. These techniques form part of the strategies known as communicative strategies.Interpersonal strategies monitor learners development and progress. Familiarity with target culture is achieved through the use of these strategies, without which language acquisition remains incomplete.Affective strategies have an inevitable role in language learning. Feeling of unfamiliarity with a foreign language can lead to varying emotions, attitude and motivation within learners. To remain emotionally focused and motivated can be achieved through the use of affective strategies (Zare, 2012).Language Learning Strategies Used at the Graduate LevelLearners at the graduate level have their own characteristics. They are involuntary to explore their preferred way of learning more out of a demand for autonomy that arises due to a shift in their role as they make a transition from school to college than a conscientious effort to know their LS and use of LLS. A research carried out by Gujjar, Naoreen and Aslam (2010) studied the LLS used by graduate learners in formal and non-formal education systems in Pakistan. Based on Oxfords taxonomy of LLS, the findings of their study indicated that there was no real difference in learners from both systems in their use of direct strategies. They indicated a similar trend in their use of memory, cognitive and compensation strategies. In terms of indirect strategies, formal learners used more social strategies in language learning. However, no significant difference was found between the students from formal and non-formal systems of education on the use of meta-cognitive and affective strategies of language learning (Gujjar et al, 2010).Relationship Between Learning Styles Language Learning Strategies A Review of Previous ResearchesWhen left on their own and if not explicitly boost by the teacher to use a certain set of strategies, students typically use learning strategies that reflect their basic learning styles (Oxford, 2003). This asserts the opinion by many educationists that LLS do not operate by themselves, but are tied to the learners underlying natural tendency to learn in a particular way known as LS. It is interesting to note that many learners plectron and employment of LLS is random and unconscious. To be able to optimize efficiency in learning, learners need to be familiar with their LS to know which strategies are most appropriate to their LS and to the task at hand, since a relationship is considered to exist between the learners LS and their choice of LLS.However, whereas there are significant researches in the area of studying the relationship between LS or LLS and certain variables, such as demographic factors, not much work is present in studying the relationship between learners LS and LLS.Ehrman and Oxford (1989) conducted a study regarding overall personality type as measured by Myers-Briggs Typ e indicator (MBTI). It was found that extroverts indicated a importantly greater use of affective strategies and visualization strategies than the introverts. However, introverts were reported to use more frequent manipulation of strategies requiring communication of meaning. Compared to sensing learners, intuitive learners used more affective, formal model building, functional practice and searching for and communicating meaning strategies. Feeling-type learners, as compared to thinkers, displayed greater use of general study strategies. Perceivers made use of more strategies for searching for and communicating meaning than the judgers, who demonstrated more frequent use of general study strategies than did perceivers (Tabanlioglu, 2003).Ehrman and Oxford (1990) studied the relationship between LS and LLS through semi-structured interviews. They used MBTI-G (Myers and McCaulley, 1985) for learning styles and the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) for preferred LLS. Th e results showed that the preferred LLS for each pair of LS were in an appropriately matched distribution. It could be safely concluded that LS may significantly influence their choices of LLS (Shi, 2011)Another research concerned with the relationship between LS and LLS conducted by Jie Li and Xiaoqing Qin (2006) in Chinese tertiary level learners used the Chinese chance variable of MBTI-G and a questionnaire on the use of LLS adapted from OMalley and Chamots classification. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data revealed that LS have a significant influence on learners selection of LLS. Moreover, it also investigated the influence of

Informatics In Public Health Information Technology Essay

Informatics In Public Health Information Technology EssayYasnoff et al(2000)stated that effective unexclusive wellness requires timely, accurate, and edifying knowledge from a wide variety of sources. Not surprisingly, humans wellness professionals have been among the earliest users of estimators , other study technologies from which many and useful computerized information and surveillance systems have been developed(Yasnoff et al, 2000).A more systematic and informed approach to the application of information cognition and engineering science needs to be utilized in order to begin full advantage of its potential to enhance and facilitate humanity health activities(Yasnoff et al, 2000).However, OCarroll et al(2002)defined world health informatics as the systematic application of information and computer science and technology to public health practice, research, and learning. Public health informatics is primarily an engineering discipline and a practical activity ungi rded by science and oriented to the accomplishment of specific tasks(OCarroll et al, 2002).How informatics impact or improve public health?The scope of public health informatics includes the conceptualization, design, development, positionment, refinement maintenance, and rating of communication, surveillance, information, and learning systems relevant to public health(OCarroll et al, 2002). Using strategies and standards, practitioners employ public health informatics tools and training to maximize health impacts at local, state, and national levels(CDC, 2006).They develop and deploy information technology solutions that provide accurate, timely, and secure information to guide public health action(CDC, 2006).Public health informatics involves the application of knowledge and practice from numerous disciplines that contribute to public health(OCarroll et al, 2002).Advances in public health informatics resulted in public health innovations and added value to interventions by provi ding the capability for more timely perception of health problems and more complete and efficient health communications (CDC, 2006). Surveillance is an aspect of public health that can be dramatically transformed by the application of information technology(Yasnoff et al, 2000).How public health informatics is different from medical informatics?The primary focus of public health informatics is on the applications of information science and technology that promote the health of populations while the primary focus of medical informatics is on the health of specific individuals who presents with a specific complaint or condition requiring diagnosis and discourse(OCarroll et al, 2002).A primary focus of public health informatics is on the applications of information science and technology that prevent affection and injury by altering the conditions that put populations of individuals at risk while whereas medical informatics is on the application of information science and technolog y for the treatment of individuals who already have a disease or high risk conditions(OCarroll et al, 2002).Prevention approach in public health informatics is not influence by professional discipline, but rather by effectiveness, expediency, cost, and social acceptability of intervening at various potentially vulnerable points in a causative chain whereas medical informatics preventive interventions is within the context of each professional discipline with focus on one or a fewer points in the causal chain(OCarroll et al, 2002). Public health informatics is not restricted to particular social, behavioral, or environmental contexts whereas medical informatics is restricted to clinical and operative encounters(OCarroll et al, 2002).Public health informatics involves operation within a governmental context requiring responsiveness to legislative, regulatory, and policy directives whereas medical informatics involves operation through clandestine practices, clinics, hospitals, wit h governmental direction primarily in terms of quality assurance (OCarroll et al, 2002).References.OCarroll, P,W Yasnoff, W, A Ward, M,E Ripp, L,H Martin,EL.(2002).Public health informatics and information systems. Springer.Yasnoff, W, A OCarroll, P,W Koo, D Linkins, R, W Kilbourne,EM.(2000).Public health informatics Improving and transforming public health in the information age. Journal of Public Health Management Practice Vol 6(6) p67-75.CDC(2006).Informatics and public health at CDC. MMWR Vol 55(SUP02) 25-28. Retrieved from http//www.cdc.gov/mmwr/ preview/mmwrhtml/su5502a10.htmTop of FormWeek 1 Introduction to Informatics in Public Health DiscussionIt was not until 1988 that efforts by the Institute of Medicine draw public health with a working definition that outlined its mission, components, and core functions, as a result, the focus began to shift from medicine and treatment of disease to public health and its goals of prevention and health promotion (Schneider 2006). As noted by OCarroll (2003), with public health reform, an increase in managed care and the revolution of new technology, public health professionals increased the need of public health informatics forcing the transition of traditional methods of information storage to the development of technical software.Prior to the emergence of public health as a discipline, medical informatics was employed in various healthcare institutions. Hasman and Haux (1996) described medical informatics as discipline that intersects information science, computer science, and health care to address the storage, retrieval, and use biomedical information for problem solving and decision making. To keep abreast of an ever changing technological society, public health informatics emerged. OCarroll, 2003 noted that public health informatics is defined as the systematic application of information and computer science and technology to public health practice, research and learning (p5). According to OCarroll (2003) , it is different from medical informatics because it focuses on populations, disease prevention, preventative interventions, and governmental operations.Informatics is now a discipline that is increasing being integrated into the field of public health. The National Center for Public Health Informatics (NCPHI), for example, is one of the national centers of the Centers for Disease authorisation and Prevention (CDC). Started in 2005, the NCPHI in composed of five divisions and seeks to use information technology to aid in surveillance, outbreak response, and laboratory reporting and other aspects of public health. The goals of the center is to enhance monitoring and research and increase real time access to health information. The National Centers for Public Health Informatics although a plum new have several tools in place to maximize access to health information (CDC 2009). The use of informatics of found throughout the field of public health.With the development of new technolo gy, public health informatics seeks to further incorporate new software to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of the collection, analysis, and reporting of public health information. To fully embrace the impact informatics can have on public health OCarroll (2003) claimed that education and training is imperative to decrease the sense of deficiency among public health professionals and promote the widespread implementation of public health informatics as a discipline.

Oedipal Complex in Hamlet Essay -- Shakespeare Hamlet Essays

Hamlet and the Oedipal Complex In Shakespeares Hamlet, the title characters main, and only flaw, is his deferral. This seems to constitute the central part in Hamlet. By the definition of tragedy, thither should exist a flaw in the character of the main hero, who is a great personality that is engaged in a struggle that ends catastrophically. Various reasons for Hamlets delay are given. Important issues like madness, melancholy and cowardice are discussed, but the evidence reveals that he is capable of swift action, we deem him as an intelligent mankind and can therefore conclude that he is only pretending madness. To regard him simply as suffering from melancholy is not a sufficient account as he is eager to avenge the death of his father, but cannot bring himself to have got action. It is obvious that the reason for not carrying out the revenge is not repayable to any moral apprehensions or fear of divine retribution. There is something special about this task tha t makes it impossible for Hamlet to carry out the deed. The inability to take action stems from distinctive feelings within Hamlet, his Oedipal Complex. Hamlet has the perfect opportunity to kill Claudius in Act 3 Scene 3, yet he fails to seize it. He fears that killing Claudius will automatically send Claudius to heaven without punishment. Hamlet himself remarks And now Ill dot. And so a goes to heaven and so I am revenged. That would be scanned A villain kills my father, and for that I, his sole son do this same villain to heaven. (3.3.74-78). Hamlet may believe he is delaying from fear of sending Claudius to a heavenly afterlife however, there are times when Hamlet could have killed Claudius when he was not at prayer. Claudius is not ... ... he is delaying out of fear is invalid. Hamlet also may have plenty of time to kill Claudius when he is not in prayer, so any interpretation that includes Hamlets concerns for Claudius afterlife is also invalid. Both of these i nterpretations rely on Hamlet being conscious of his actions. If Hamlet is not conscious of his behaviour, it must be because his desire stems from that part of him in which he is unaware, his id. Works Cited and Consulted Guerin, Wilfred L., Earle Labor, Lee Morgan, Jeanne C. Reeseman, and toilet R. Willingham. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. New York Oxford University Press, 1992. Leong, Virginia. The Oedipal Complex. 06 December 1997. (07 December 1997) Shakespeare, William. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. The Riverside Shakespeare. ED. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston Haughton Mifflin Company, 1974.

Leadership Theories and the Bible Essay -- Papers Leading

Theories of LeadershipLeadership is the ability of a person to influence people toward the attainment of a particular goal. Leadership is a people activity, not like administrative paper shuffling or problem solving. It is a dynamic force and involves the use of power. Out of the forces of leadership come four mightily characteristics supportive, directive, participative, and achievement-oriented leadership. Although these types of characteristics are not considered ingrained personality traits, they reflect types of behavior every leader is able to adopt depending on the situation.The supportive leadership role involves covering concern for subordinates well being and personal needs. This type of leadership behavior is open, friendly, and approachable. The person who has this type of leadership trait would be able to created a police squad climate and treats subordinates as equals. They move on a higher plain of trust. By seeking and finding support form his subordinates, the supportive leader shows his trustiness and integrity. He brook be at times open to change. Supportive leaders fetch a high degree of emotional intelligence which heart and soul having a deep understanding of one?s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, needs and drives. The supportive leader will be able to recognize these traits in his subordinates because he possesses them as well.In the biblical sense, Two are better than one because they have a good reward for their hard work. For if one of them should fall, the other one can raise his partner up. But how will it be with just the one who falls when there is not another to raise him up, Eccesiastes 49-10. God wants us to show concern for each other and give support when needed. These two p... ...en in Israel like Moses, whom the lord knew face to face, who did all those miraculous signs and wonders the Lord direct him to do in Egypt ? to Pharaoh and to all his officials and to his whole land. For no one has ever sho wn the mighty powers or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel.? This clearly shows that God does not want us to dwell on monetary rewards. He wants us to communicate and lead on a higher be after and not dwell on what?s in it for me. God should be our reward. Because if we live for God, we will surely be an outcast to others. All four types of leaderships have there own share of ups and downs. None of them are really clear-cut. There are drawbacks in any type of leadership. But if you put God basic in everything that you do, you will have a greater chance for success, and possibly the respect you deserve.